Best Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurse Practitioner (PMHNP) Programs in Virginia | 2025

Learn more about the best Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurse Practitioner (PMHNP) programs in Virginia as we explore their nuances, including coursework, clinical training, prerequisites, salary expectations, and more. Whether you're a practicing nurse seeking to advance your career or generally curious about the educational pathway, you've come to the right place.

Best PMHNP Programs in Virginia — Online & On-Campus

Learn More About Virginia's Top PMHNP Programs

The Old Dominion State, known for its strong healthcare infrastructure and leading medical institutions, offers an excellent environment for aspiring Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurse Practitioners. Virginia is home to prominent hospitals, community health centers, and mental health programs, providing a wide range of clinical training opportunities in both urban and rural areas. With its diverse healthcare landscape, Virginia offers a solid foundation for future mental health professionals to advance their education and clinical expertise.

This section highlights Virginia's top PMHNP programs, covering key features, admission requirements, financial aid options, and more to guide your journey in mental health care.

^{For more details on PMHNP programs and schools, refer to the section and links above.}

1. University of Virginia (UVA)

At the top of this list is UVA, a school that combines academic excellence with a personalized, flexible approach to help you reach your career goals! Choose from a BSN-MSN, BSN-DNP, or Post-Master's Certificate in psychiatric mental health advanced nursing practice. 

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Flexible Hybrid Learning: Attend in-person classes about once a month and complete the rest online.
• Duration: Programs can be completed in one to five years, depending on if you do them full- or part-time.
• Guaranteed Admission for Alumni: UVA School of Nursing alumni have guaranteed admission.
• Top Ranked: UVA's MSN program ranks #7 among public universities and in the top 3% of US graduate nursing programs (US News & World Report).

Clinical & Credit Hours — Here are the plans of study for each track:

• MSN Track: 42-43 credit hours and over 500 clinical hours
• DNP Program: 82 credit hours and over 700 clinical hours
• Post-Master's Certificate: 19 credit hours and over 500 clinical hours

Students coordinate rotations with support from faculty. UVA has partnerships at prominent mental health facilities across the state!

Admissions Requirements — While UVA has minimum admissions requirements, competitive applicants have:

• A BSN or MSN with a minimum 3.25 GPA
• At least one year of full-time RN experience in mental health (except for the BSN)
• Active membership in a national nursing organization (except for the BSN)
• Leadership involvement in a clinical setting (except for the BSN)
• Excellent writing skills 
• Three strong recommendations (one from an APRN)
• Graduate-level courses in Advanced Physiology/Pathophysiology, Advanced Health Assessment, and Advanced Pharmacology (Post-Grad Certificate)

Application Deadline — The next application deadline is January 5th, 2025.

Financial Aid — UVA offers extensive support, with millions awarded in aid. Around 68% of grad students received financial aid in 2024! 

2. James Madison University (JMU)

JMU offers a unique, comprehensive PMHNP MSN program in collaboration with Shenandoah University.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Dual-School Advantage: With the first year completed at JMU and the second at Shenandoah, students benefit from the specialized faculty, extensive resources, and networks of both universities.
• Flexible Program Structure: JMU's program can be taken full-time or part-time in the first year, but the second year at Shenandoah requires full-time study.
• Program Duration: Full-time students can complete the MSN degree in just four academic semesters.

Clinical & Credit Hours — Across both years, students complete a total of 51 credit hours. The first 22 credits are completed at JMU, and the remaining 29 credits at Shenandoah are focused on advanced psychiatric mental health practice. You'll also complete at least 780 clinical hours. 

Admissions Requirements — JMU's admissions requirements reflect its commitment to excellence:

• A BSN with a 3.0 GPA 
• Relevant clinical experience
• Undergraduate Statistics course with at least a "C"
• Two professional recommendations demonstrating personal and professional qualifications
• Interview (upon request) 

Application Deadlines — Applicants are accepted on a rolling basis.

Financial Aid — JMU and Shenandoah provide extensive financial support, including scholarships and other funding options. 

3. George Mason University (GMU)

GMU offers a BSN-DNP and Post-Master's Certificate, providing well-regarded pathways for aspiring PMHNPs to advance their expertise in psychiatric mental health care.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Hybrid Learning: GMU offers flexible on-campus and hybrid options to fit your schedule.

Clinical & Credit Hours — DNP students complete 72 credits and over 1,000 clinical hours, whereas Graduate Certificate students complete 23 credits and at least 500 clinical hours. 

Admissions Requirements — To be considered for admission, you'll need:

• A BSN or MSN with a minimum 3.0 GPA
• At least one year of full-time RN experience
• A recent Statistics course (DNP program)
• Two letters of recommendation
• A resume
• A goals statement

Application Deadlines — Both tracks have a fall start deadline of February 1st. The DNP program also offers Spring admissions, with a deadline of November 1st.

Financial Aid — GMU's School of Nursing offers extensive needs-based and merit-based scholarship opportunities for nursing students. 

4. Radford University (RU)

Radford College of Nursing offers a BSN-DNP and Post-Master's Certificate PMHNP pathway, designed to equip students with the skills needed for leadership roles in advanced psychiatric nursing practice.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Fully Online Learning: Radford's DNP program is 100% distance-based.

Clinical & Credit Hours — The DNP program involves 87 credit hours with more than 1,000 clinical hours. The Post-Master's Certificate requires 23 credit hours and 540 clinical hours. Your residency experiences will be customized to fit your goals and needs.

Admissions Requirements — To be considered for admission, applicants must meet the following criteria:

• Have a minimum cumulative BSN GPA of 3.0 (3.5 MSN GPA for Post-Master's applicants)
• Three letters of reference, including one from an academic setting
• A professional resume or CV documenting at least 2,000 clinical hours
• An essay
• A paper demonstrating recent scholarly writing (within the last 5 years)
• Completion of prerequisites in Statistics and Nursing Research
• Interviews may be required 

Application Deadlines — Keep these dates in mind:

• Priority Deadline: March 1st
• Final Deadline: June 1st (space available basis)

Financial Aid — Radford's Financial Aid Office offers a variety of aid options, including federal grants, loans, and work-study programs. Complete the FAFSA to determine your eligibility for funding.

5. Old Dominion University (ODU)

ODU School of Nursing offers psychiatric NP Program pathways, including BSN-MSN, MSN-DNP, and Post-Graduate Certificate options, known for their comprehensive curriculum and flexible format.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Hybrid Format: Programs take place primarily online; some courses may require attendance at live, virtual sessions, primarily held on Thursdays.
• National Recognition: ODU is ranked among the top 10% of nursing programs nationwide by US News & World Report.

Clinical & Credit Hours — Each track is broken down as follows:

• BSN-MSN: 504 clinical hours and 40 credit hours
• MSN-DNP: 1,000 clinical hours and 55 credit hours
• Post-Graduate Certificate: 504 clinical hours and 18 credit hours

Admissions Requirements — Prospective students must: 

• Hold a BSN or MSN
• Possess at least one year of recent clinical nursing experience
• Provide three professional references (from former supervisors or faculty)
• Submit a goal statement
• Provide a current resume
• Have undergraduate Physical/Health Assessment course and an undergraduate Statistics or Research course (MSN program)
• Have coursework in Advanced Pathophysiology, Advanced Physical Assessment, and Advanced Pharmacology (Post-MSN Certificate)

Application Deadlines — Each track has its own priority deadlines:

• BSN-MSN track: March 15th
• MSN-DNP track: September 1st 
• Post-Grad Certificate track: Rolling admissions with limited spots

Financial Aid and Scholarships — ODU offers financial support for graduate students through Graduate Assistantships, which include teaching and research positions, Graduate Fellowships, Tuition Grants, and Tuition Waivers.

6. Shenandoah University

Shenandoah offers streamlined pathways to becoming a psychiatric nurse practitioner with robust BSN-MSN, MSN-DNP, and Post-Graduate Certificate programs, tailored to meet you where you are in your career.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Asynchronous Format: Shenandoah's graduate nursing programs are delivered entirely online.
• Duration: Programs take one to two years to complete.

Clinical & Credit Hours — Each program track includes the following clinical and credit hour requirements:

• BSN-MSN: 49 credit hours and 780 clinical hours
• MSN-DNP: 35 credit hours and 500 clinical hours
• Post-Graduate Certificate: 27 credit hours and 780 clinical hours

Admissions Requirements — Here's Shenandoah's application checklist:

• A BSN or MSN with a 3.0 GPA
• Completion of prerequisite courses (Advanced Pathophysiology, Advanced Pharmacology, Advanced Physical Assessment) with a "B" or higher (DNP and Post-Grad tracks)
• A minimum of 2,080 hours of direct patient care as an RN (DNP and Post-Grad tracks)
• Prerequisite coursework in Health Assessment, Pathophysiology, Pharmacology, Chemistry (DNP and Post-Grad tracks)
• Coursework in Statistics 
• Two professional references and one academic reference 

Application Deadlines — The MSN program offers rolling admissions but the MSN-DNP and Post-Grad Certificate programs have a priority deadline of February 15th and a final deadline of April 1st. New cohorts start every August.

Financial Aid — Shenandoah offers graduate assistantships with potential tuition waivers, stipends, or housing. You may also be eligible for scholarships or tuition discounts

7. Liberty University

Liberty University offers flexible, online PMHNP program tracks for nurses at various stages of their careers, including BSN-DNP, MSN-DNP, and Post-Graduate Certificate options.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Fully Online: Enjoy the flexibility of completing 100% of your coursework online with 8-week courses.
• Christian Mission: As a Christian university, Liberty's mission is "Training Champions for Christ," integrating faith with the practice of nursing.

Clinical & Credit Hours — Here's the general breakdown of the study plans for these programs:

• BSN-DNP: Over 1,000 clinical hours and 73 credit hours
• MSN-DNP: Over 1,000 clinical hours and 59 credit hours
• Post-Graduate Certificate: 504 clinical hours and 17 credit hours 

Admissions Requirements — Prospective students must:

• Hold a BSN,  MSN, or DNP with a minimum 3.0 GPA
• Provide one reference from a professional or academic contact
• Submit a writing sample 
• Have completed advanced courses in Health assessment, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacology (MSN-DNP and Post-Grad tracks)
• Have completed courses in Statistics, Research Methods, and Health assessment (BSN-DNP)
• Submit a resume or CV

Application Deadlines — Liberty has rolling admissions with no set deadlines, but admissions are competitive!

Financial Aid — Liberty University offers a variety of financial aid options, including grants, scholarships, and work-study opportunities for graduate students. The university also waives the non-refundable application fee for qualifying military service members, veterans, and military spouses.

8. Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU)

Finishing our list of top programs in Virginia is VCU School of Nursing, offering a BSN-DNP and Post-Master's Certificate to prepare you for a successful career in psychiatric care.

Key PMHNP Program Highlights

• Hybrid Format: Part-time, hybrid learning with a mix of online coursework and hands-on clinical experience.
• Innovative Learning Environment: VCU's health science campus provides access to VCU Health, a nationally recognized academic medical center with Magnet status.
• Duration: The DNP track takes three and a half years to complete (part-time), while the Certificate can be completed in two years.

Clinical & Credit Hours — The DNP program involves 66 credit hours alongside 1,000 clinical hours. The Post-Graduate Certiifcate program involves 21 credit hours with extensive clinical experience that is determined through a gap analysis. 

Admissions Requirements — Here's what you'll need to apply to VCU:

• A BSN or MSN with a 3.0 GPA
• Letters of recommendation from instructors or professional references
• A resume/CV
• A personal statement 
• Prerequisite courses in Advanced Pathophysiology, Pharmacology, and Health Assessment (Post-Grad Certificate)

Application Deadlines — Both tracks have different application cycles: 

• The BSN-DNP only admits for the fall cycle:
• Early admission deadline: November 1
• Regular admission deadline: July 15
• The Post-Graduate Certificate only admits for the Spring cycle, with one deadline of October 15th.

Financial Aid — VCU provides several opportunities to ease the financial burden, including graduate teaching assistantships, stipends, scholarships, and interprofessional research collaboration.

What Is a Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurse Practitioner Program?

A PMHNP program is a graduate-level educational pathway designed to prepare registered nurses (RNs) for advanced practice roles in psychiatric and mental health care. These programs typically lead to a Master of Science in Nursing (MSN) or a Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) degree, focusing on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of psychiatric disorders and mental health issues across the lifespan.

PMHNP programs in Virginia are structured to provide nurses with the knowledge, skills, and competencies required to offer comprehensive psychiatric care, including assessment, diagnosis, therapy, and medication management for patients experiencing mental health challenges.

PMHNP Coursework

The coursework for PMHNP programs in Virginia covers a wide range of topics essential for the effective practice of psychiatric and mental health nursing. Common courses include:

• Advanced Psychopharmacology: Study of psychotropic medications, their mechanisms of action, side effects, and therapeutic uses.
• Neuroscience for Mental Health Practitioners: Understanding of the neurobiological foundations of mental health and psychiatric disorders.
• Psychiatric Assessment and Diagnosis: Techniques for conducting comprehensive psychiatric evaluations, including mental status examinations and differential diagnosis.
• Psychotherapy Modalities: Exploration of various psychotherapy techniques, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and family therapy.
• Mental Health Across the Lifespan: Examination of mental health issues and psychiatric disorders from childhood through older adulthood.
• Ethics and Legal Issues in Psychiatric Care: Discussion of ethical and legal principles relevant to psychiatric and mental health practice.
• Cultural Competence in Mental Health: Strategies for providing culturally sensitive care to diverse populations.
• Management of Complex Mental Health Conditions: Approaches to treating complex and co-occurring psychiatric conditions.

PMHNP Clinical Training

Providing hands-on experience, or clinical training, in psychiatric and mental health settings is a crucial component of PMHNP programs in Virginia.

Clinical training includes:

• Clinical Rotations: Supervised clinical practice in various settings, such as inpatient psychiatric units, outpatient mental health clinics, community health centers, and private practices.
• Direct Patient Care: Opportunities to assess, diagnose, and manage patients under the supervision of experienced PMHNPs and psychiatrists.
• Therapeutic Communication: Development of effective communication skills for psychotherapy and counseling.
• Medication Management: Experience in prescribing and managing psychotropic medications, including monitoring for side effects and evaluating treatment outcomes.
• Interprofessional Collaboration: Working with a healthcare team, including psychologists, social workers, and physicians, to provide comprehensive psychiatric care.
• Case Studies and Simulations: Use of case studies and simulation labs to practice clinical decision-making and therapeutic interventions.

PMHNP Graduation Requirements

Once admitted into a PMHNP program, students must meet the following requirements to graduate and become eligible for certification:

• Completion of Coursework: Successful completion of all required coursework, which covers advanced pharmacology, pathophysiology, health assessment, psychiatric assessment, psychotherapy modalities, and management of mental health conditions, among other topics.
• Minimal Clinical Hours: According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) Essentials, all advanced-level nursing programs must include 500 practice hours, encompassing both direct and indirect experiences. For nurse practitioner (NP) programs, the National Task Force Standards for Quality NP Education (NTFS) require at least 750 hours of direct patient care. Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) programs generally demand 1,000 or more clinical hours.
• Capstone Project or Thesis: Some programs may require a capstone project or thesis that demonstrates the integration of academic knowledge with clinical practice.
• Certification Exam: Upon program completion, graduates must pass a certification exam specific to psychiatric-mental health nurse practitioners, such as the PMHNP exam offered by the American Nurses Credentialing Center (ANCC).
• State Licensure: Apply for and obtain state licensure as a Psychiatric-Mental Health Nurse Practitioner. Requirements for licensure can vary by state but generally include passing the national certification exam and submitting proof of education and clinical hours.

PMHNP Program Admission Requirements

Prospective students must meet specific prerequisites and requirements before enrolling in a PMHNP program. These admission prerequisites ensure that students have the foundational knowledge and skills necessary for advanced study and practice in psychiatric and mental health nursing.

The admission requirements for a PMHNP program typically include:

• Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN): A BSN degree from an accredited nursing program is typically the minimum requirement to enter an NP Program. Some programs may offer bridge options for RNs with an associate degree in nursing (ADN) or a diploma in nursing. 
• RN Licensure: Active and unrestricted RN licensure in the state where the clinical training will be completed.
• Clinical Experience: A specified amount of clinical experience as an RN, often in a psychiatric or mental health setting. The required duration of experience can vary, with many programs requiring one to two years of full-time work.
• Undergraduate Coursework: Completion of specific undergraduate courses with a minimum GPA set by each PMHNP program, which may include anatomy and physiology, Microbiology, statistics, and psychology.
• Letters of Recommendation: Letters from academic faculty or professional supervisors who can attest to the applicant's clinical abilities, professional demeanor, and potential for success in a PMHNP program.
• Personal Statement: A written statement of purpose explaining the applicant's interest in psychiatric and mental health nursing, career goals, and reasons for pursuing a PMHNP degree.
• GRE Scores: Some programs may require Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores, although this requirement is becoming less common.

Additional requirements to begin clinicals in most nursing programs typically include a background check, physical health screening, immunizations, and a drug test.

PMHNP Salary Expectations in Virginia

The salary of a Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioner (PMHNP) can differ significantly based on several factors, including geographic location, years of experience, practice setting, and educational and certification levels. To give you an idea of potential earnings, we've gathered relevant data. Here is the latest information from the BLS:

Virginia NP Wage

• Mean Hourly Wage: $58.11
• Mean Annual Wage: $120,870

Virginia employs 7,360 nurse practitioners, placing the state in the 75th  percentile for NP employment nationwide.

National NP Wage

• Mean Hourly Wage: $61.78
• Mean Annual Wage: $128,490

Top Paying States for NPs

• California: $161,540
• Nevada: $148,670
• Washington: $145,400
• New Jersey: $145,030
• Oregon: $144,950

The BLS does not provide a breakdown of salaries for various NP specialties. However, according to ZipRecruiter, PMHNP salaries vary between $118,500 and $211,500, contingent on the state of practice. The majority of PMHNPs earn around $118,500, with a national average salary of $139,486.

Virginia ranks 6th in the nation for PMHNP salaries, with an average annual income of $145,105.

Top paying states for PMHNPs:

• Washington: $158,804
• Colorado: $157,510
• Delaware: $147,478
• Illinois: $1146,111
• New York: $145,228

PMHNP Career Outlook

Statistics from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) project a 40% increase in healthcare positions by 2033, including roles for Nurse Practitioners, Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists, and Certified Nurse Midwives, expecting to add approximately 141,200 new jobs.

The United States faces a severe shortage of mental health providers, impacting over 150 million people in regions identified as mental health care deserts. Although specific numbers for Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioners (PMHNPs) have not been provided by the BLS, the growing population and increased need for mental health services signal a considerable demand for these specialists in the future. Estimates forecast a gap of between 14,280 and 31,109 mental health professionals shortly, further intensifying the already critical shortage of psychiatrists. This shortage is anticipated to affect other mental health professions, such as psychology and social work, where demand is also expected to rise.

Are PMHNP Programs in Virginia Worth It?

Deciding whether a PMHNP program is worth it in Virginia requires considering its various advantages and disadvantages.

Pros of PMHNP Programs in Virginia

1. High Demand for Mental Health Services: With an increasing awareness of mental health issues and a growing demand for psychiatric care, PMHNPs are in high demand in Virginia. This trend is expected to continue, offering job security and numerous employment opportunities.
2. Competitive Salaries: PMHNPs in Virginia often command competitive salaries due to their specialized skills and the high demand for mental health services. Advanced practice nurses typically earn significantly more than registered nurses.
3. Opportunity to Make a Difference: PMHNPs play a crucial role in addressing the mental health crisis, providing care to patients who might otherwise lack access to psychiatric services. This can be incredibly rewarding for those passionate about mental health.
4. Flexibility in Practice Settings: PMHNPs in Virginia have the flexibility to work in various settings, including hospitals, mental health clinics, private practices, and telepsychiatry, allowing for diverse career paths and work environments.
5. Autonomy in Practice: In Virginias, PMHNPs work closely with physicians in a collaborative environment, ensuring comprehensive care for patients while maintaining a structured practice approach.

Cons of PMHNP Programs in Virginia

1. Cost of Education: The financial investment in a PMHNP program can be substantial, including tuition, books, and fees. Prospective students must consider this investment against the potential return in terms of salary and job satisfaction.
2. Intensive Study and Clinical Hours: PMHNP programs are rigorous and require a significant time commitment, including extensive clinical hours. Balancing this with personal and professional responsibilities can be challenging.
3. Emotional and Psychological Stress: Working in mental health can be emotionally taxing. PMHNPs must manage their stress and maintain a healthy work-life balance to avoid burnout.
4. Licensing and Certification Requirements: After completing a PMHNP program, graduates must navigate the process of obtaining national PMHNP certification and state licensure in Virginia, which can be lengthy and sometimes stressful.
5. Continuing Education: To maintain certification and licensure, PMHNPs must complete continuing education requirements, which can be time-consuming and sometimes costly.

Why Picking an Accredited PMHNP Program Matters

Choosing an accredited PMHNP program in Virginia is crucial for several reasons:

• Quality of Education: Accreditation ensures that the program meets rigorous educational standards. This guarantees a comprehensive and up-to-date curriculum that covers all necessary aspects of psychiatric and mental health nursing, preparing students with the knowledge and skills required in this specialized field.
• Eligibility for PMHNP Certification and Licensure: Graduating from an accredited PMHNP program is often a prerequisite for taking the national certification exams required to practice as a PMHNP. Most state boards of nursing also require completion of an accredited program for licensure. Without this, graduates may not be eligible to practice.
• Professional Credibility: An accredited program is recognized for its quality and rigor, enhancing a graduate's professional credibility. Employers often prefer or exclusively hire nurse practitioners who have graduated from accredited programs, as it assures them of the practitioner's competent educational background.
• Career Opportunities: Accredited programs are well-regarded in the healthcare community, opening up more job opportunities. Many healthcare facilities and organizations give preference to candidates from accredited programs due to their proven educational standards.
• Access to Federal Financial Aid: Students in accredited programs are typically eligible for federal financial aid, which can be crucial in funding their education. This is particularly important given the significant investment required for advanced nursing education.

Reputable accrediting bodies include the Commission on Collegiate Nursing Education (CCNE) and the Accreditation Commission for Education in Nursing (ACEN).

Best PNHNP Programs Near Me

Discover the best PMHNP programs in the following states:

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What are the licensure requirements for PMHNPs in Virginia? 

In Virginia, PMHNPs are typically required to obtain a Master's or higher degree in nursing, pass the national PMHNP certification, and meet state-specific clinical hour requirements. They must also hold an active registered nurse (RN) license in Virginia and apply for APRN licensure through the Virginia State Board of Nursing (BON). For specific details and updates, review the Virginia BON official website.

How does the PMHNP scope of practice vary in Virginia? 

In Virginia, PMHNPs operate under a restricted practice model, as defined by the American Association of Nurse Practitioners (AANP). This means that PMHNPs must work under the supervision or delegation of a physician to diagnose, treat, and manage patient care, including prescribing medications. The VA BON enforces these regulations to ensure that PMHNPs practice within the state's established guidelines.

What distinguishes a PMHNP from a psychiatrist?

While both PMHNPs and psychiatrists diagnose and treat mental health disorders, their training and approaches differ. PMHNPs are advanced practice registered nurses specializing in psychiatric care, often incorporating holistic treatment strategies that consider both mental and physical health aspects. Psychiatrists are medical doctors with specialized training in psychiatry, primarily focusing on medication management.

Can someone with a non-nursing background become a PMHNP?

Yes, individuals with a bachelor's degree in another field can become PMHNPs by enrolling in accelerated nursing programs. These programs allow you to obtain a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN) and then an RN license at an accelerated pace. Afterward, pursuing a PMHNP program is the next step.

Are there residency programs available for PMHNPs after graduation?

Yes, some healthcare facilities provide fellowship or residency programs for newly graduated PMHNPs. These programs enhance clinical skills and knowledge in psychiatric-mental health care, helping PMHNPs manage complex mental health conditions more effectively.